The Vedic Age lasted from 1500 to 600 BC, marking a significant period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age in ancient Indian history.
It derived its name from the Vedas, the sacred text of Hinduism.
This period is divided into the Early Vedic Period (1500-1000)BC and the Later Vedic Period (1000-600) BC.
Origin of AryansThe original home of Aryan is debated, and different theories are proposed on it -
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Various Sources of Vedic Period
The Four Vedas:
Early Vedic text i.e Rigveda
Later Vedic text i.e Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharveda
Rigveda: It is the oldest surviving text which is divided into 10 mandals. It is a collection of hymns and prayers dedicated to various deities and natural forces such as Agni, Indra, Mitra, and Varuna.
Samaveda: The Samaveda is a collection of chants and melodies used during rituals. It is derived from the Rigveda and is primarily concerned with the musical aspects of the Vedic hymns.
Yajurveda: This Veda contains prose mantras and verses that are used as instructions or guidelines for rituals, especially those related to sacrifices. There are two main branches of Yajurveda: the Shukla (White) Yajurveda and the Krishna (Black) Yajurveda.
Atharvaveda: Contains magic, charms, omens, agriculture, cure for diseases.
Other sources like Brahmanas, Aranyakas (forest books), Upanishad, Vedanta and Vedanga.
Inscriptions
Boghazkoi Inscription: It mentions 4 Vedic gods Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and Nasatyas discovered in the Turkey Syria area dated around 1400 BC. It proves Central Asian theory.
Early Vedic (Rig Vedic) Period (1500 BCE - 1000 BCE)
Society
The society was divided between Aryans and Non-Aryans i.e Dasyus
They are predominantly pastoral and tribal in nature.
It was an egalitarian society, with little social stratification.
The 4 fold Varna order and rigid caste system were not yet completely developed.
Ghosha, Sikta, Nivavari, and Apala were female sages and they contributed to the composition of the Rigveda.
Child Marriage and Sati were absent.
Widow remarriage was prevalent during that time.
Geographical Area
Early Vedic people or Aryans settled in the land of Sapt Sindhu, the land of seven rivers.
Sindhu/Indus is most mentioned and Saraswati is regarded as a holy river.
Political System
The administration of Aryans worked as the Tribal chief at the centre called as Rajan.
The king's position was hereditary in nature and the traces of the election of the king by the tribal assembly called the Samiti.
Several tribal or clan-based assemblies such as the Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha, Gana are mentioned in the Rigveda.
Sabha and Vidatha were also attended by women.
The important functionaries of the Rigvedic period were Purohit, Vasishtha, and Vishwamitra who composed the Gayatri mantra.
The chief received voluntary offerings called Bali.
The officer with larger land or pasture ground is called Vrajapati.
The king did not maintain any standing army.
Status of Women
Women could also attend assemblies and can offer sacrifices along with their husbands.
Society was patriarchal in nature though women were given equal opportunities as men for instance education, selecting a life partner, and widow remarriage.
There are no examples of child marriage and the marriageable age in the Rig Veda are present.
Economy
The society was predominantly pastoral in nature.
The cow seems to be the most important form of wealth.
The barter system was prevalent as cows were a key to exchange.
Primitive agriculture using wooden ploughs was in practice.
Pre iron phase of Printed Grey Ware has been excavated in Bhagwanpura in Haryana.
Religion
The Rigvedic Aryanas worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, and thunder primarily through yajnas.
Important gods were Indra, Varuna, Agni, Yama, and Soma.
Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE - 600 BCE)
This era witnessed significant changes in the social, economic, political, and religious aspects of society. The later Vedic culture is also called the Painted Grey Ware Culture of the Iron Age.
Society
In the later Vedic period, there is the emergence of a more structured social hierarchy, the codification of the caste system, and the continued importance of rituals and religious practices.
Social Stratification: Society became more stratified, with birth determining an individual's social status and occupation. Brahmins occupied the highest social position due to their association with religious duties and knowledge, while Shudras held the lowest status.
Varna system became more established and categorized people into four main varnas i.e. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
The growing cult of sacrifices increased the supremacy of Brahmanas.
Family Structure
The family remained the basic unit of society, with patriarchal structures predominant.
Polygyny having many wives has become common.
Patriarchal authority was significant, with the eldest male member (the father or grandfather) typically holding authority over family affairs.
Status Of Women
The decline in the societal stature of women compared to the Rigvedic era.
They were no longer permitted to attend the assemblies.
Women earlier participated in rituals in the Rigvedic period; they were excluded in the later Vedic era.
The practice of Sati and Child marriage was prevalent.
Remarriage was also prohibited.
Geographical Expansion
Eastward Expansion: The later Vedic texts, particularly the Brahmanas and the Upanishad, mention the movement of Vedic people towards the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent. This expansion led to the establishment of settlements in areas such as Bihar, Bengal, and Odisha.
Later Vedic text refers to the three divisions of India that are Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India), and Dakshinapatha ( Southern India).
Political Structure
The concept of Janapada emerged which meant the area where the tribe settled. The word rashtra was also used for the first time in the Later Vedic texts.
The Kurus were formed from the union between two major Vedic tribes the Bharatas and the Purus who occupied the area in the upper portion of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
The Panchalas are mentioned as people who occupied the middle portion of the Doab, called the Panchala desa.
This indicates that tribal identities were merging with territorial identities.
Tribal Assemblies
The sabha became more important than the samiti during this period. Reference to rajas in the assembly or the sabha suggests that they helped the king in his duties. The office of the raja or the chief was not based solely on birth, but the choice of rajas was restricted to the Kshatriyas.
Raja’s Legitimacy
The authority of the rajana became more evident. King assumed titles like Rajavisjanan, Abhilabhuvanapathi, Ekrat, and Samrat.
In the Rigvedic period, the Ashvamedha yajna was a small affair. But in later periods, this was performed to subjugate other areas and legitimize the ruler’s hold over alien lands.
Army: The king did not maintain a standing army and tribal units were mobilized in times of war.
The Priest - The Brahmanas too became important in the redistribution of wealth through dana and Dakshina on such occasions was primarily from the Kshatriya Yajamana to the Brahmana priests.
Economy
The growth of agriculture in the Later Vedic period was made possible by the availability of vast tracts of fertile alluvial lands of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the middle-Ganga valley.
Both archaeological and literary sources document the introduction of rice as the staple diet of the people. The PGW and Banas culture have yielded charred grains of rice from excavated sites.
Double cropping was practised in the later vedic period and the fields grew both barley and rice.
Grahpati was the owner of the land.
Exchange continued through barter. Nishka was a gold and silver ornament used in barter.
Taxation and Trade
Unlike the Rigvedic age, collecting taxes and tributes was made mandatory, primarily from the Vaishyas.
Trade and Taxation had developed in the later vedic age. No evidence of coins has been found barter must be a medium of exchange.
Knowledge of Metals
The evidence of the Later Vedic period suggests a transition from a pastoral society to a sedentary agrarian society.
The socketed axes made of iron were extensively used to clear the forests of the Gangetic Doab for permanent cultivation. It was also believed that iron-tipped ploughshares and hoes increased the efficiency of agricultural implements.
The scholars believed that the knowledge of iron technology was an important factor in the development of the agrarian economy.
Religion
The Gods of the Rig Vedic period- Varun, Indra, Agni, Usha, and Surya lost their significance. Vishnu and Prajapati became significant gods.
Sacrifices became more important than prayers. The importance of prayers diminished and rituals became more elaborate.
Magic, superstitions, and blind faith became part of religious life. The priests devoted themselves to finding the hidden meanings of various rites and rituals.
The priestly class grew in authority, and they were able to assert the laws of rites and rituals. People began to have a firm belief in rites and sacrifices.
Note for UPSC Aspirants: For UPSC aspirants interested in exploring further, here are some keywords to guide your research: Monarchy in ancient India, Iron Age in India, Ancient Indian trade and commerce, Evolution of ancient Indian political systems, Philosophical schools in ancient India
Source: NCERT
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